Sampling definition: selecting representative sample from population for analysis and inference. Needs: population movement, cost/time constraints, destructive testing. Bias types: undercoverage, non-response, wording. Sampling vs non-sampling errors. Population parameters (µ, σ²) vs sample statistics (X̄, s²).
Industrial conflict expressing opposition between owners/managers and workers. Forms: organized (collective strikes/lockouts) and unorganized (individual absenteeism). Theories: Ross-Hartman industrialization, Marx exploitation, Dubin institutionalization, Clegg bargaining, Korpi-Shalev welfare, Hansen business cycle impacts.
Payment of Wages Act 1936 regulating wage payments across establishments. Wages definition, inclusions (awards, overtime, bonuses), exclusions (pensions, gratuities). Deductions allowed (20 types), wage period fixation (≤1 month), payment time/mode, fines (max 29%), register maintenance requirements.
Industrial disputes covering meaning and definition per Industrial Disputes Act 1947 Section 2(k), distinction between employers-workmen disputes, types of disputes (interest disputes and rights disputes), impacts on employers (production stoppage, cost increase, profit fall, compensation liability, loss of prestige, labor alienation), impacts on employees (income loss, personal injury, psychological effects, employment threat), impacts on economy (national productivity decline, resource wastage, political unrest), causes of industrial disputes (economic: wages, allowances, working conditions, leave, retrenchment; non-economic: victimization, indiscipline, violence), types of industrial actions (overt: strikes, picketing, work-to-rule, go-slow, sit-ins; covert: absenteeism, sabotage, labor turnover, exclusion from decision-making).
Trend projection methods covering linear trend model, regression trend line equation (Ŷ = a + bx), normal equations for calculating a and b constants, properties of best fit trend line, solved examples for sugar factory and tourist arrivals data, seasonal effects measurement and seasonal index calculation (simple averages method, ratio-to-trend method, ratio-to-moving average method, link relatives method), deseasonalized values calculation, cyclical variations measurement, relative cyclical residual calculation with solved examples.