This practical report demonstrates osmosis by observing changes in raisin size when placed in distilled water (hypotonic) and concentrated sugar solution (hypertonic). It explains endosmosis, exosmosis, water potential, and semi-permeable membrane function, with detailed procedure, observations, and conclusions for understanding water movement in plant cells.
This practical notes document details an experiment to determine seed germination percentage of Vigna radiata. It includes the objective, materials, procedure, daily observations, calculation formula for germination percentage, results, and conclusion discussing seed viability and factors affecting germination.
Hot air oven laboratory equipment using dry heat sterilization. Principle: convection, conduction, radiation. Mechanical: cabinet, chamber, shelves, fans. Electrical: heater, thermostat, timer. Types: natural convection, forced convection, side draught. Applications: glassware, instruments, heat-resistant materials.
Centrifugation principles: sedimentation, gravitational force. Rotor types: fixed angle, swinging bucket, vertical. Centrifuge types: tabletop, microcentrifuge, ultracentrifuge. Preparative/analytical techniques. Applications: cell purification, protein isolation, nucleic acid separation, density gradient centrifugation.